Bronze Age Department

В статье приводятся результаты типологического и спектрального анализа оригинальных металлических украшений, обнаруженных в погребениях курганной группы Советское-II (Воронежская область), относящихся к срубной культуре лесостепной зоны Волго-Донского междуречья. Рассматривается обряд погребений, в которых были обнаружены данные украшения. Указывается круг аналогий этим предметам. Высказывается предположение о возможности использования браслетов и подвесок со спиралевидными завитками в качестве хронологических маркеров раннесрубного периода и начало развитого.

In this article results are published obtained during excavations of the Starshee Nikitino burial-ground in 2002–2004. Twenty-one grave-pits were investigated. On the basis of the an analysis of the lay-out of the burial-ground, four complexes were identified linking together burials and traces of structures made of posts outside the grave and a small moat. Grave goods were found in seven of the graves. Features of the funerary rite and the grave goods make it possible to classify this burial-ground as belonging to the late stage of the Middle-Volga Abashevo culture. Sites of this kind are rarely encountered within the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve, i. e. beyond the confines of the main territory where Abashevo antiquities are found. The organic remains were observed to be in a good state of preservation. This made it possible to arrive at an anthropological definition of a post-cranial skeleton for four of the deceased and to obtain radio-carbon dates. This site has to date yielded up the most representative series of dates pertaining to the Abashevo culture. Publication of the materials from this site makes it possible to specify details of the Middle-Volga Abashevo culture and its date and to trace its contacts with other cultural groups of a similar date or location (print in Russian)

The article presents the results of the statistical analysis of burial associations from ground cemeteries of timber-grave cultural-historical entity. Some conclusions are suggested. First, this type of burial rite was practiced during the whole period of timbergrave culture’s development. Second, ground burials are similar to kurgan ones performed with simplified ritual procedures. The obtained data do not confirm the opinion on specific character of ground cemeteries as used for children burials only.

В книге более детально, чем это сделано сегодня для других катакомбных культур среднего бронзового века, описан погребальный обряд восточноманычской культуры и предлагается реконструкция некоторых черт социальной структуры носителей обряда: существование большесемейной общины как основной ячейки общества, экономическая и идеологическая невыделенность малой семьи из состава большой, вероятность билинейного счета родства, прочность позднеродового общественного уклада. Особое внимание уделено культовому характеру курганных памятников и входящих в них комплексов.

Thе monograph “East Manych catacomb culture” is devoted to the detailed analysis of the East Manych archaeological culture burial rite. Burial sites of this culture, dating back to the second half of the third millennium B.C., are found in the steppes of Kalmykia and Stavropol krai, to the north-east of the Caucasus. The database compiled for investigation includes 620 burial assemblages coming from 249 barrows at 28 sites. The description model of the phenomenon in question has been worked out and the reconstruction of certain aspects of Middle Bronze Age nomadic pastoral society is suggested. These aspects include extended family as basic social structure, group form of property within tribal structures, economically and ideologically indefinite status of nuclear family, bilinear system of blood relations as highly probable, stability of late tribe social system.

Hypothesis concerning presence of the Indo-Iranians in the steppe zone of Eastern Europe from the 3 rd mill. BC onward is grounded mostly linguistically. Now it is rather widely accepted, despite it is difficult to establish correlation between ethno-
linguistic entities and archaeological cultures. The author considers archaeological finds from the Bronze Age steppe kurgans to trace the cult of god Soma/Haoma, namely, sacrifice practice, as reconstructed from the texts of Rigveda and Avesta, which mention a sacred plant, probably ephedra, used to experience the state of immortality. Finds from East Manych and West Manych Catacomb cultures are analysed (58 and 45 associations respectively). Most frequent stone artefacts are pestles, mortars (Fig. 1, 3), and shaft straighteners (Fig. 4, 1). Pestles and mortars were probably used for pressing out Soma juice, and straighteners for bark removing. The objects are accounted in prestigious graves, often containing wooden wagons (Fig. 2). Of special interest are clay funnels, once evidently supplied with sheep wool filter for straining Soma juice. According to Rigveda, it was poured out to wooden containers; the remains of wooden vessels are known from the elite burials of Manych culture (Fig. 4, 2, 3). The suggested interpretation of the find sets from the Late Catacomb burials (the second part of the 3 rd mill. BC) might be confirmed by detailed analytical investigations of artefacts from new archaeological excavations.

Using statistical investigation of the orientation of burial structures in burial mounds and of the dead at sites of the Eastern Manych Culture, a reconstruction has been made of the main features of the orientation system underlying the lay-out of the burial mounds. This article provides a description of the similarity between this
phenomenon and data drawn from the Indo-Aryan (or more widely – the Indo-ranian)
written tradition. The arrangement of space within burial mounds and grave structures in accordance with the points of the compass and directions between the latter, the tendency for burials to be arranged in the eastern half of burial mounds, the importance of the North-South axis for the orientation of grave structures and that of the dead, the binary opposition of orientations used in two local variants of the Manych Culture, circular movement (with the sun and contrary to the sun) – all these features echo what is found in the Vedas and later texts of Hinduism and, to a smaller extent, in the ancient Iranian religious texts of the Avesta. It is assumed that a similar system existed in other Late Catacomb cultures. For a well-founded interpretation of this observation it is necessary to undertake systematic investigation of the spatial arrangement not only in catacomb sites, but also in earlier and later cultures for the general population within the steppe zone of Eurasia.

The paper publishes materials of a spectacular assemblage – cenotaph of the East Manych Catacomb culture (the second half of the 3 rd mill. BC taking into account calibrated radiocarbon dates) from Khar Zukha I cemetery in Kalmykia. Characteristics of the quasi-grave construction and the composition of the artifacts found inside are analyzed in comparison with a standard burial rite typical of burial sites of this culture. The authors believe that the Khar Zukha I cenotaph shows traces of sacrifices, which were, most likely, performed not to worship ancestors (or at least to worship not only ancestors) but to a deity or gods, the links with which were established during the funeral and memorial rite.
В статье публикуются материалы яркого комплекса – кенотафа восточно-манычской катакомбной культуры (вторая половина III тысячелетия до н. э. с учетом калиброванных радиоуглеродных дат) из могильника хар зуха I в Калмыкии. Особенности квазимогильного сооружения и состав содержавшихся в нем артефактов анализируются в сравнении с характерной для погребальных памятников этой культуры «обрядовой нормой». По мнению авторов, в кенотафе из Хар Зуха I представлены следы жертвоприносительных действий, совершавшихся, скорее всего, в адрес не предков (или, по крайней мере, не только предков), но божества или богов, связь с которыми устанавливалась в рамках погребально-поминального ритуала.

This paper considers the individual and collective burials of the East Manych catacomb culture dating back to the second
half of the third millennium BC (the Middle Bronze Age). 440 individual and 60 collective burials were analyzed, the major part of
these being dug in kurgans of the earlier Pit Grave, North-Caucasian or Early Catacomb cultures. Using the categories of infants,
children, pre-adults and adults, four groups each of individual and collective burials were created.

L.I. Avilova. On circulation of metal in the epoch of the Chalcolithic – Bronze Age (ingots, blanks and weight systems of the Near East)

Abstract. The article is focused on archaeological finds from the Near East dated to the Early Metal period (V-IV – II mill. BC). Special attention is paid to the artefacts related to exchange – metal ingots/blanks and balance weights. Some aspects of metal circulation in the zone of early civilizations are discussed. The work aims at defining position the analyzed materials occupy in trade and exchange relations of IV – II mill. BC. The author applies comparative-typological method of investigation and draws corresponding data from archaeological publications. Morphological types of ingots/blanks from Anatolia, Syria-Mesopotamia, Palestine, Iran, Central Asia are singled out. Balance weights are compared to the weight characteristics of ingots and jewellery blanks. The author concludes that there existed intensive trade relations between Troy II–VI with Syria and Mesopotamia, stressing that the majority of Anatolian ingots/blanks correspond to weight standards of this zone of III – II mill. BC. Data from Late Bronze Age shipwrecks are presented. It is underlined that exchange systems using metals as equivalent of value must be regarded as indication of early civilizations of Near Eastern type. The data from burials of bronze-casters of Eastern Europe attest usage of Near Eastern weight standards. Relations between specialized population groups involved in metal production and exchange let infiltration of elements of Near Eastern civilization to pastoral tribes of a distant periphery.
Keywords: Bronze Age, metal, Near East, Iran, Central Asia, ingots, blanks, balance weights, exchange, weight standards, civilization, periphery.

The article considers a series of fi nds from several royal burials of the Bronze Age in Anatolia. The finds comprise spindles with spindle whorls, of bronze and precious metals. The author compares the objects in question and the replicas of carpenters' tools, also made of precious metals, which are known in elite complexes of the Near East. The precious " implements " , unsuitable for practical usage, fi nd their place among the supreme symbols of royal power (regalia, weapons and vessels). The sacralization of labor through making symbolic (non-functional) tool replicas of precious metals was an important feature of early stratifi ed societies. Such objects had a strong semantic charge, visualizing the hierarchical structure of society. Their presence in burial complexes refl ects a major notion of the cult of the dead, that the deceased ancestor (king-priest or queen-priestess) provide for the well-being of the living descendants, the family and, broader, of the community, the state, and the world order in general. The spindle is also included in the list of objects that have symbolic meaning: as a tool it belonged to the sphere of everyday women's activities, yet it was also part of the sacred aspect of these activities, being connected with procreation and magic healing practices.

Изучение древнего металла включает ряд проблем, таких как
причины становления и ранние этапы его производства; пути поступления металлов в районы, бедные рудными месторождениями; роль металла как индикатора социальных процессов. Ближний Восток как область зарождения древнейших  мировых цивилизаций играет ключевую роль в рассмотрении  этих проблем, поскольку раннее знакомство с металлом и производство сплавов на медной основе было одним из условий и отличительных черт развития  древних  ближневосточных  цивилизаций.  Ценность  металла в  древности  была  чрезвычайно  высока.  Он  был одним  из  наиболее  ценных  материалов,  добывался  со  значительными затратами труда для внутреннего потребления и обмена, служил эквивалентом ценности и использовался для изготовления символически значимых предметов. В данной  работе автор рассматривает в основном идеологические  стороны  использования металла, обращаясь к археологическому и культурному контексту металлических находок с тем, чтобы полнее понять связь  между производственным и идеологическим аспектами жизни древних обществ на разных стадиях развития.

Пути сообщения существуют столько времени, 
сколько существует человечество. Древнейшими транспортными артериями были реки, освоенные человеком в эпоху мезолита. 
Позже, в неолите (VIII–V тыс. до н.э.) стали осваивать наземные пути, по которым происходил обмен ценными видами сырья 
(кремень, обсидиан, лазурит, малахит, морские раковины, слоновая кость) между племенами на расстояния порой до многих сотен километров. Это были пешеходные тропы, привязанные к естественному рельефу — речным долинам, горным проходам. Древние пути прослеживаются по археологическим находкам из расположенных вдоль них поселений. Так реконструирована обширная сеть путей сообщения, которая в IV тыс. до н.э. соединяла шумерские центры Северной Месопотамии с соседними территориями Северной Сирии, Восточной Анатолии, Западного Ирана. Из древнейшего очага цивилизации, которым была Передняя Азия, культурные достижения распространялись в Европу двумя потоками – через Балканы и Кавказ в степное Причерноморье. На рубеже IV и III тыс. до н.э., в раннебронзовом веке, здесь также использовались четырехколесные повозки. Дороги этого времени неизвестны, но можно предполагать, где пролегали пути распространения культурных достижений. Так, существует древняя «карта» - чеканное изображение на серебряном сосуде из Майкопского кургана, на которой достаточно узнаваемо обозначен путь с юга, из Восточной Анатолии или Северной Месопотамии, на Северный Кавказ. В статье дан краткий обзор транспортных средств от древности до Средневековья.

The article focuses on the comparative analysis of regional models of early metal production in the Near East (Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Iran) in the 5th – early 2nd millennia BC. The study is based on the statistical analysis of computer databases on ancient copper/bronze, gold, silver, and lead artifacts, compiled by the author. Four criteria are suggested for characterizing the regional models of metal production: production dynamics, distribution of artifacts
by function, the role of various metals, and proportions of components of copper-based alloys. Regularities underlying the origins and evolution of metal production in the Near East are described along with regional and chronological specifics. The relationship between the features of metal production and stages of social and economic development of ancient societies is reconstructed.

Investigation of metal is important for understanding relationship between production and ideology in ancient Near East. Metal production in the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age stimulated transformation of egalitarian society into stratified one. The author traces relation of objects of social and religious significance (interior decorations, anthropo- and zoomorphic sculpture, symbolic weapons and implements) with certain types of sites. From the Neolithic onward metal was used in mortuary practice. In the Early Bronze Age metal production shows relationship with the process of urbanization and formation of early polities. The Middle Bronze Age sees dramatic rise of metal production; valuable and symbolically important finds originate from royal tombs, temples, and treasures. When considering metal finds' context, the author concludes that in the Near East in the late prehistory, urban civilization, and early states metal actively functioned in sacral sphere. Moreover, ideology to a great extent determined development of metal production.

Многослойное поселение Телль Юнаците (известное в литературе также как Плоская могила) расположено на территории Болгарии в западной части Фракийской долины. Мощность культурных слоев достигает 9 м, представлены периоды от раннего энеолита до римского времени и раннего средневековья. Стратиграфия телля и его материалы важны для решения ряда проблем археологии Болгарии и всего обширного Балканского региона. В статье публикуется коллекция металлических предметов из слоя эпохи бронзы.

What caught the eye of archeologists in the Royal cemetery of Ur was a set of tools in the grave goods pointing to a higher social status of the dead, i.e. the kings and their families. Precious royal regalia together with carpenter’s tools were found not only in Mesopotamia but also in Anatolia, in Priam’s Treasure at Troy where, along with golden jewelry, vessels and regalia was also a bronze saw. That is, precious carpentry is present together with other valuables and holies. Now why did Sumerians place carpentry tools side by side with jewelry and symbols of power in the royal tombs? This is quite natural as far as the royal regalia and festal weaponry are concerned. But why carpentry? There was some ritual meaning to that.The building activities were held to be an important function of deified rulers, or priest-kings in maintaining law and order in city-states. This is why the otherwise utilitarian tools could be also made of precious metal as symbols of royal authority, and, more than that, carpenter’s tools were thought to be attributes of gods.

Статья посвящена проблеме отражения в археологическим материале признаков изменений культурной ситуации  на основании анализа массового материала, с одной стороны, и комплексов и находок уникального характера – с другой. Чем вызвано появление новых явлений культуры? Что заставляло людей переходить к использованию новых материалов, открывать новые технологии? Были ли это потребности выживания или «рациональное» и «иррациональное» теснейшим образом переплетались между собой? Какова роль внутренних факторов развития общества и внешних стимулов? Какие социальные механизмы позволяли сохранить стабильность архаических обществ и каким образом воздействовали на них соседние и более удаленные культуры? Эти и связанные с ними проблемы рассматриваются в основном на материалах Балкан и Передней Азии.

Эпоха раннего  металла (энеолит и бронзовый  век, V–II тыс.  до  н.э.)  отмечена сложением новой  отрасли  экономики –  производства и обработки  металлов. Одновременно происходит становление  цивилизаций,  интенсификации  взаимодействия  человеческих  коллективов, передачи культурных и производственных достижений на огромные расстояния. В России и за рубежом бурно развиваются историко- металлургические  исследования – перспективное  направление в изучении  древних производств. В российской археологической науке обосновано существование крупных культурно производственных систем (металлургических провинций), определявших процесс производственного,  культурного и социального развития древних обществ. В рамках провинций развивалось горное дело, металлургия и металлообработка, вырабатывались  технологические и морфологические стандарты продукции. Металлопроизводство было также одним из важнейших факторов  культурных и социальных процессов древности, поскольку металл был
одним из основных видов сырья, добывавшихся  для внутреннего рынка и  товарообмена. В последние десятилетия этот материал привлекает к себе все  больше внимания исследователей, поскольку он позволяет ставить и решать  проблемы развития ранней металлургии и металлообработки, распространения  технологических инноваций, сложения в обществе
тех факторов, которые определяли степень его готовности к принятию технических и культурных достижений. Публикуется обзор серии научных проектов по исследованию древнего металлопроизводства.

The paper considers some social and cultural characteristics of the Near Eastern civilizations in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age epochs (the Ubaid, Uruk, and Early Dynastic periods). The main attention is paid to the phenomenon of sacred feast known from the archaeological materials and compositions on stamp and cylinder seals (known as “banquet scenes”) and other objects. To reveal their semantics and religious significance ancient literary texts are drawn. The author comes to the conclusion that archaeological materials, including burial associations and pieces of art, and ancient texts are related to the cult of fertility, which is typical of agricultural societies of the Near East.

The Nahal Mishmar hoard (technological and cultural context)

The Nahal Mishmar Late Chalcolithic hoard from the Negev desert is well known as the richest complex of technologically and morphologically unique objects, unvalued for the characteristic of the early metal production in Palestine. The paper presents a review of its technological and stylistic investigations within functional groups of metal artefacts (tools/weapons, standards, «crowns», vessels). The author points to some discrepancies in the chronology of the hoard, with the regard to some analogies of later date from Tepe Hissar, Susa, Ur. Absence of metal scrape does not allow consider it a founder’s hoard. It also includes no personal ornaments, ingots, noble metals (unlike Nahal Qanah). The hoard represents a primary means of storing wealth, a treasure which belonged to a local community and was preserved in its central place, religious and administrative centre (probably shrine En Gedi). This situation is characteristic of the processes of accumulation, redistribution, and use of common wealth, and exchange organization best illustrated for the Late Chalcolithic – EBA by Arslantepe VIA hoard.