- Lyudmila I. Avilova – Dr. of Historical Science, researcher at the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Scien... moreLyudmila I. Avilova – Dr. of Historical Science, researcher at the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation. Graduated from Moscow State University in 1975. Deputy Editor-in-Chief of the journal Kratkiye soobshcheniya Instituta arkheologii – KSIA (Brief Communications of the Institute of Archaeology). Scientific interests: Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Ph. D.: Burial rite of Eneolithic agricultural groups of South-Eastern Europe (1984), Moscow. Doctoral thesis: Metal of the Near East in context of social-economic and cultural processes (Eneolithic – Middle Bronze Age), 2011, Moscow. Scientific interests: Eneolithic and Bronze Age of South-Eastern Europe and the Near East, in particular: burial rituals, social structure, chronology, metal production and exchange, practical and symbolic role metal items played in early societies.edit
Reinforcing metal elements in early Eurasian wheels are described. A typology of wheel constructions is proposed, and stages of their evolution and diffusion in socially and ethnically diverse societies are reconstructed. In Sumer and... more
Reinforcing metal elements in early Eurasian wheels are described. A typology of wheel constructions is proposed, and stages of their evolution and diffusion in socially and ethnically diverse societies are reconstructed. In Sumer and southwestern Iran, early (3d millennium BC) eviden ce of the use of wheeled transport includes remains of wagons in burials, and representations on vessels and cylinder seals, as well as clay and metal models. The early reinforcing details were bronze nails pinned along the treads of solid-disk wheels. Thick leather straps on treads served for binding wheels, prevented wear, and made riding more comfortable. Chariots marked the high social status of their owners, and were used for military, hunting, and ritual purposes. Around 2000 BC, metal tread-bands with additional plates were introduced in Susiana and Central Asia. In the Early Iron Age, after a 1000-year long break, studded treads reappeared, but on spoked wheels. This construction occurs across a huge territory from the Balkans and Aegean to Bactria. A review of materials from the Bronze Age kurgan burials in the Eastern European steppes reveals no evidence of the use of metal details in the Pit-Grave, Novotitorovka, Catacomb, or Sintashta cultures, indirectly suggesting a multiplicity of wheel-manufacturing traditions.
Конструктивные особенности колесного транспорта Ирано-Месопотамского региона в III–I тыс. до н.э. В статье рассматриваются упрочняющие металлические элементы в колесных повозках Евразии. Выделяются типы конструкций, намечаются некоторые... more
Конструктивные особенности колесного транспорта Ирано-Месопотамского региона в III–I тыс. до н.э. В статье рассматриваются упрочняющие металлические элементы в колесных повозках Евразии. Выделяются типы конструкций, намечаются некоторые этапы развития и распространения технологических традиций в обще-ствах с разной социальной организацией и различной этнической принадлежности. На территории Шумера и Юго-За-падного Ирана имеются ранние (III тыс. до н.э.) свидетельства использования колесных повозок: их остатки в погре-бениях, изображения на сосудах и цилиндрических печатях, глиняные и металлические модели. Ранний тип креплений представляет собой ряд гвоздей, вбитых по краю сплошных дощатых колес. Восстанавливаются ременные протек-торы на колесах, служившие для их стяжки и защиты от износа и повышавшие комфортность езды. Колесница была принадлежностью лиц высокого социального ранга и использовалась в военных, охотничьих и ритуальных целях. Новый тип упрочняющих деталей – плоские металлические шины с дополнительными пластинами – появился на рубеже III и II тыс. до н.э. в Сузиане и Центральной Азии. В раннем железном веке крепления в виде гвоздей вдоль обода вновь ста-ли применяться после тысячелетнего перерыва, но на колесах нового типа – со спицами. Они известны на обширной территории от Балкан и Эгеиды до Бактрии. Обзор материалов эпохи бронзы из курганных захоронений в восточно-европейских степях показывает, что металлические конструктивные элементы не использовались в ямной, новотито-ровской, катакомбной и синташтинской культурах. Это косвенно свидетельствует о множественности технологиче-ских традиций изготовления колесных повозок. Ключевые слова: бронзовый век, железный век, Ирано-Месопотамский регион, колесные повозки, металлические упроч-няющие детали, технологические традиции. Reinforcing metal elements in early Eurasian wheels are described. A typology of wheel constructions is proposed, and stages of their evolution and diffusion in socially and ethnically diverse societies are reconstructed. In Sumer and southwestern Iran, early (3d millennium BC) evidence of the use of wheeled transport includes remains of wagons in burials, representations on vessels and cylinder seals, as well as clay and metal models. The early reinforcing details were bronze nails pinned along the rims of solid wheels. Thick leather straps on treads served for binding wheels, prevented wear, and made riding more comfortable. Chariots marked high social status of their owners, and were used for military, hunting, and ritual purposes. Around 2000 BC, metal tread-bands with additional plates were introduced in Susiana and Central Asia. In the Early Iron Age, after a 1000-year long break, studded treads reappeared, but on spoked wheels. Such a construction occurs across a huge territory from the Balkans and Aegean to Bactria. The review of materials from the Bronze Age kurgan burials in the Eastern European steppes reveals no evidence of the use of metal details in the Pit Grave, Catacomb, Novotitorovka or Sintashta cultures, indirectly suggesting multiplicity of wheel-manufacturing traditions.
On the use of weighting systems in the Bronze Age The article is focused on a group of archaeological findings associated with trade and exchange relations during the Bronze Age and their role in the economy of ancient society. An... more
On the use of weighting systems in the Bronze Age
The article is focused on a group of archaeological findings associated with trade and exchange relations during the Bronze Age and their role in the economy of ancient society. An attempt is made to present an analysis of the objects, operatively defined as weights. A general overview is given of the relevant findings from the 3rd –2nd millennia BC. C. e. from Anatolia (Troy, Mahmatlar, Uluburun). The weighting standards of stone weights are compared to the weight categories of ingots from precious metals and blanks for jewellery. The authors draw the conclusions that there existed intensive trade relations between Troy II–VI with the region of Syria and Mesopotamia, and that in Anatolia both corresponding weight systems and local Anatolian weighting standard were used. The article provides data attesting the usage of Near Eastern weight standards in the Kuban region (Novotitorovka culture) and North Pontic region (Ingul Catacomb culture), which poses questions on the nature of the use of such type of objects in the functioning of long-distance trade, as well as on the scale of weight system used in the 3rd millennium BC. The use of weight standards evidences the exchange of values between specialized population groups involved in the production and exchange of metals that stimulated the infiltration of Near Eastern civilizational elements in a distant periphery.
The article is focused on a group of archaeological findings associated with trade and exchange relations during the Bronze Age and their role in the economy of ancient society. An attempt is made to present an analysis of the objects, operatively defined as weights. A general overview is given of the relevant findings from the 3rd –2nd millennia BC. C. e. from Anatolia (Troy, Mahmatlar, Uluburun). The weighting standards of stone weights are compared to the weight categories of ingots from precious metals and blanks for jewellery. The authors draw the conclusions that there existed intensive trade relations between Troy II–VI with the region of Syria and Mesopotamia, and that in Anatolia both corresponding weight systems and local Anatolian weighting standard were used. The article provides data attesting the usage of Near Eastern weight standards in the Kuban region (Novotitorovka culture) and North Pontic region (Ingul Catacomb culture), which poses questions on the nature of the use of such type of objects in the functioning of long-distance trade, as well as on the scale of weight system used in the 3rd millennium BC. The use of weight standards evidences the exchange of values between specialized population groups involved in the production and exchange of metals that stimulated the infiltration of Near Eastern civilizational elements in a distant periphery.
Research Interests:
Ring-shaped pendants of the Balkan-Carpathian region and Anatolia and the transition to the Early Bronze Age The paper describes a group of metal items known as ring-shaped pendants typical for the late Eneolithic of the... more
Ring-shaped pendants of the Balkan-Carpathian region and Anatolia
and the transition to the Early Bronze Age
The paper describes a group of metal items known as ring-shaped pendants typical for the late Eneolithic of the Balkan-Carpathian region. They are also found in Anatolia where they are traditionally dated to EBA II–III (3rd mill. BC). The author supports a wider chronological range of Anatolia pendants, i. e. from the second half of 4th mill BC (Ikiztepe) to EBA II (Baklatepe). The pendants are examined in the context of relationship of the Eneolithic Balkan cultures with the Anatolian sites dating to the end of the Eneolithic – beginning of the Early Bronze Age. The spread of this type of items is linked to the breakup of the Eneolithic Metallurgical Province and development of a new Circumpontic Province during the EBA. Ring-shaped pendants help trace the direction of the links, i. e. from the Balkans to the coastal areas of Anatolia.
and the transition to the Early Bronze Age
The paper describes a group of metal items known as ring-shaped pendants typical for the late Eneolithic of the Balkan-Carpathian region. They are also found in Anatolia where they are traditionally dated to EBA II–III (3rd mill. BC). The author supports a wider chronological range of Anatolia pendants, i. e. from the second half of 4th mill BC (Ikiztepe) to EBA II (Baklatepe). The pendants are examined in the context of relationship of the Eneolithic Balkan cultures with the Anatolian sites dating to the end of the Eneolithic – beginning of the Early Bronze Age. The spread of this type of items is linked to the breakup of the Eneolithic Metallurgical Province and development of a new Circumpontic Province during the EBA. Ring-shaped pendants help trace the direction of the links, i. e. from the Balkans to the coastal areas of Anatolia.
Research Interests:
On metal ingots from Anatolian hoards (Bronze Age) The paper considers metal ingots discovered in hoard associations known from Anatolia. The hoards date from the late Chalcolithic and EBA II–III (or Middle Bronze Age in the terms of... more
On metal ingots from Anatolian hoards (Bronze Age)
The paper considers metal ingots discovered in hoard associations known from Anatolia. The hoards date from the late Chalcolithic and EBA II–III (or Middle Bronze Age in the terms of historical-metallurgical periodization). Context of the hoards, material and morphology of finds are analysed. The author points to weight standards of gold ingots
and blanks – ca. 2 g, ca. 5 g and ca. 10 g. The materials from Anatolia are compared with weight systems used in Syria and Mesopotamia in the 3rd –2nd millennia BC. Circulation of metal objects of standard shapes and weights as equivalents of value is considered an indication of development of early policies within the Near Eastern civilization model. Some data are pointed to concerning spread of Near Eastern weight standards as far as the North Pontic region.
The paper considers metal ingots discovered in hoard associations known from Anatolia. The hoards date from the late Chalcolithic and EBA II–III (or Middle Bronze Age in the terms of historical-metallurgical periodization). Context of the hoards, material and morphology of finds are analysed. The author points to weight standards of gold ingots
and blanks – ca. 2 g, ca. 5 g and ca. 10 g. The materials from Anatolia are compared with weight systems used in Syria and Mesopotamia in the 3rd –2nd millennia BC. Circulation of metal objects of standard shapes and weights as equivalents of value is considered an indication of development of early policies within the Near Eastern civilization model. Some data are pointed to concerning spread of Near Eastern weight standards as far as the North Pontic region.
Research Interests:
The Nahal Mishmar hoard (technological and cultural context) The Nahal Mishmar Late Chalcolithic hoard from the Negev desert is well known as the richest complex of technologically and morphologically unique objects, unvalued for the... more
The Nahal Mishmar hoard (technological and cultural context)
The Nahal Mishmar Late Chalcolithic hoard from the Negev desert is well known as the richest complex of technologically and morphologically unique objects, unvalued for the characteristic of the early metal production in Palestine. The paper presents a review of its technological and stylistic investigations within functional groups of metal artefacts (tools/weapons, standards, «crowns», vessels). The author points to some discrepancies in the chronology of the hoard, with the regard to some analogies of later date from Tepe Hissar, Susa, Ur. Absence of metal scrape does not allow consider it a founder’s hoard. It also includes no personal ornaments, ingots, noble metals (unlike Nahal Qanah). The hoard represents a primary means of storing wealth, a treasure which belonged to a local community and was preserved in its central place, religious and administrative centre (probably shrine En Gedi). This situation is characteristic of the processes of accumulation, redistribution, and use of common wealth, and exchange organization best illustrated for the Late Chalcolithic – EBA by Arslantepe VIA hoard.
The Nahal Mishmar Late Chalcolithic hoard from the Negev desert is well known as the richest complex of technologically and morphologically unique objects, unvalued for the characteristic of the early metal production in Palestine. The paper presents a review of its technological and stylistic investigations within functional groups of metal artefacts (tools/weapons, standards, «crowns», vessels). The author points to some discrepancies in the chronology of the hoard, with the regard to some analogies of later date from Tepe Hissar, Susa, Ur. Absence of metal scrape does not allow consider it a founder’s hoard. It also includes no personal ornaments, ingots, noble metals (unlike Nahal Qanah). The hoard represents a primary means of storing wealth, a treasure which belonged to a local community and was preserved in its central place, religious and administrative centre (probably shrine En Gedi). This situation is characteristic of the processes of accumulation, redistribution, and use of common wealth, and exchange organization best illustrated for the Late Chalcolithic – EBA by Arslantepe VIA hoard.
Research Interests:
The paper considers some social and cultural characteristics of the Near Eastern civilizations in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age epochs (the Ubaid, Uruk, and Early Dynastic periods). The main attention is paid to the phenomenon of sacred... more
The paper considers some social and cultural characteristics of the Near Eastern civilizations in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age epochs (the Ubaid, Uruk, and Early Dynastic periods). The main attention is paid to the phenomenon of sacred feast known from the archaeological materials and compositions on stamp and cylinder seals (known as “banquet scenes”) and other objects. To reveal their semantics and religious significance ancient literary texts are drawn. The author comes to the conclusion that archaeological materials, including burial associations and pieces of art, and ancient texts are related to the cult of fertility, which is typical of agricultural societies of the Near East.
Research Interests:
Эпоха раннего металла (энеолит и бронзовый век, V–II тыс. до н.э.) отмечена сложением новой отрасли экономики – производства и обработки металлов. Одновременно происходит становление цивилизаций, интенсификации взаимодействия... more
Эпоха раннего металла (энеолит и бронзовый век, V–II тыс. до н.э.) отмечена сложением новой отрасли экономики – производства и обработки металлов. Одновременно происходит становление цивилизаций, интенсификации взаимодействия человеческих коллективов, передачи культурных и производственных достижений на огромные расстояния. В России и за рубежом бурно развиваются историко- металлургические исследования – перспективное направление в изучении древних производств. В российской археологической науке обосновано существование крупных культурно производственных систем (металлургических провинций), определявших процесс производственного, культурного и социального развития древних обществ. В рамках провинций развивалось горное дело, металлургия и металлообработка, вырабатывались технологические и морфологические стандарты продукции. Металлопроизводство было также одним из важнейших факторов культурных и социальных процессов древности, поскольку металл был
одним из основных видов сырья, добывавшихся для внутреннего рынка и товарообмена. В последние десятилетия этот материал привлекает к себе все больше внимания исследователей, поскольку он позволяет ставить и решать проблемы развития ранней металлургии и металлообработки, распространения технологических инноваций, сложения в обществе
тех факторов, которые определяли степень его готовности к принятию технических и культурных достижений. Публикуется обзор серии научных проектов по исследованию древнего металлопроизводства.
одним из основных видов сырья, добывавшихся для внутреннего рынка и товарообмена. В последние десятилетия этот материал привлекает к себе все больше внимания исследователей, поскольку он позволяет ставить и решать проблемы развития ранней металлургии и металлообработки, распространения технологических инноваций, сложения в обществе
тех факторов, которые определяли степень его готовности к принятию технических и культурных достижений. Публикуется обзор серии научных проектов по исследованию древнего металлопроизводства.
Research Interests:
Статья посвящена проблеме отражения в археологическим материале признаков изменений культурной ситуации на основании анализа массового материала, с одной стороны, и комплексов и находок уникального характера – с другой. Чем вызвано... more
Статья посвящена проблеме отражения в археологическим материале признаков изменений культурной ситуации на основании анализа массового материала, с одной стороны, и комплексов и находок уникального характера – с другой. Чем вызвано появление новых явлений культуры? Что заставляло людей переходить к использованию новых материалов, открывать новые технологии? Были ли это потребности выживания или «рациональное» и «иррациональное» теснейшим образом переплетались между собой? Какова роль внутренних факторов развития общества и внешних стимулов? Какие социальные механизмы позволяли сохранить стабильность архаических обществ и каким образом воздействовали на них соседние и более удаленные культуры? Эти и связанные с ними проблемы рассматриваются в основном на материалах Балкан и Передней Азии.
Research Interests:
What caught the eye of archeologists in the Royal cemetery of Ur was a set of tools in the grave goods pointing to a higher social status of the dead, i.e. the kings and their families. Precious royal regalia together with carpenter’s... more
What caught the eye of archeologists in the Royal cemetery of Ur was a set of tools in the grave goods pointing to a higher social status of the dead, i.e. the kings and their families. Precious royal regalia together with carpenter’s tools were found not only in Mesopotamia but also in Anatolia, in Priam’s Treasure at Troy where, along with golden jewelry, vessels and regalia was also a bronze saw. That is, precious carpentry is present together with other valuables and holies. Now why did Sumerians place carpentry tools side by side with jewelry and symbols of power in the royal tombs? This is quite natural as far as the royal regalia and festal weaponry are concerned. But why carpentry? There was some ritual meaning to that.The building activities were held to be an important function of deified rulers, or priest-kings in maintaining law and order in city-states. This is why the otherwise utilitarian tools could be also made of precious metal as symbols of royal authority, and, more than that, carpenter’s tools were thought to be attributes of gods.
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Многослойное поселение Телль Юнаците (известное в литературе также как Плоская могила) расположено на территории Болгарии в западной части Фракийской долины. Мощность культурных слоев достигает 9 м, представлены периоды от раннего... more
Многослойное поселение Телль Юнаците (известное в литературе также как Плоская могила) расположено на территории Болгарии в западной части Фракийской долины. Мощность культурных слоев достигает 9 м, представлены периоды от раннего энеолита до римского времени и раннего средневековья. Стратиграфия телля и его материалы важны для решения ряда проблем археологии Болгарии и всего обширного Балканского региона. В статье публикуется коллекция металлических предметов из слоя эпохи бронзы.
Research Interests:
Investigation of metal is important for understanding relationship between production and ideology in ancient Near East. Metal production in the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age stimulated transformation of egalitarian society into... more
Investigation of metal is important for understanding relationship between production and ideology in ancient Near East. Metal production in the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age stimulated transformation of egalitarian society into stratified one. The author traces relation of objects of social and religious significance (interior decorations, anthropo- and zoomorphic sculpture, symbolic weapons and implements) with certain types of sites. From the Neolithic onward metal was used in mortuary practice. In the Early Bronze Age metal production shows relationship with the process of urbanization and formation of early polities. The Middle Bronze Age sees dramatic rise of metal production; valuable and symbolically important finds originate from royal tombs, temples, and treasures. When considering metal finds' context, the author concludes that in the Near East in the late prehistory, urban civilization, and early states metal actively functioned in sacral sphere. Moreover, ideology to a great extent determined development of metal production.
Research Interests:
The article focuses on the comparative analysis of regional models of early metal production in the Near East (Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Iran) in the 5th – early 2nd millennia BC. The study is based on the statistical... more
The article focuses on the comparative analysis of regional models of early metal production in the Near East (Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Iran) in the 5th – early 2nd millennia BC. The study is based on the statistical analysis of computer databases on ancient copper/bronze, gold, silver, and lead artifacts, compiled by the author. Four criteria are suggested for characterizing the regional models of metal production: production dynamics, distribution of artifacts
by function, the role of various metals, and proportions of components of copper-based alloys. Regularities underlying the origins and evolution of metal production in the Near East are described along with regional and chronological specifics. The relationship between the features of metal production and stages of social and economic development of ancient societies is reconstructed.
by function, the role of various metals, and proportions of components of copper-based alloys. Regularities underlying the origins and evolution of metal production in the Near East are described along with regional and chronological specifics. The relationship between the features of metal production and stages of social and economic development of ancient societies is reconstructed.
Research Interests:
Пути сообщения существуют столько времени, сколько существует человечество. Древнейшими транспортными артериями были реки, освоенные человеком в эпоху мезолита. Позже, в неолите (VIII–V тыс. до н.э.) стали осваивать наземные пути, по... more
Пути сообщения существуют столько времени,
сколько существует человечество. Древнейшими транспортными артериями были реки, освоенные человеком в эпоху мезолита.
Позже, в неолите (VIII–V тыс. до н.э.) стали осваивать наземные пути, по которым происходил обмен ценными видами сырья
(кремень, обсидиан, лазурит, малахит, морские раковины, слоновая кость) между племенами на расстояния порой до многих сотен километров. Это были пешеходные тропы, привязанные к естественному рельефу — речным долинам, горным проходам. Древние пути прослеживаются по археологическим находкам из расположенных вдоль них поселений. Так реконструирована обширная сеть путей сообщения, которая в IV тыс. до н.э. соединяла шумерские центры Северной Месопотамии с соседними территориями Северной Сирии, Восточной Анатолии, Западного Ирана. Из древнейшего очага цивилизации, которым была Передняя Азия, культурные достижения распространялись в Европу двумя потоками – через Балканы и Кавказ в степное Причерноморье. На рубеже IV и III тыс. до н.э., в раннебронзовом веке, здесь также использовались четырехколесные повозки. Дороги этого времени неизвестны, но можно предполагать, где пролегали пути распространения культурных достижений. Так, существует древняя «карта» - чеканное изображение на серебряном сосуде из Майкопского кургана, на которой достаточно узнаваемо обозначен путь с юга, из Восточной Анатолии или Северной Месопотамии, на Северный Кавказ. В статье дан краткий обзор транспортных средств от древности до Средневековья.
сколько существует человечество. Древнейшими транспортными артериями были реки, освоенные человеком в эпоху мезолита.
Позже, в неолите (VIII–V тыс. до н.э.) стали осваивать наземные пути, по которым происходил обмен ценными видами сырья
(кремень, обсидиан, лазурит, малахит, морские раковины, слоновая кость) между племенами на расстояния порой до многих сотен километров. Это были пешеходные тропы, привязанные к естественному рельефу — речным долинам, горным проходам. Древние пути прослеживаются по археологическим находкам из расположенных вдоль них поселений. Так реконструирована обширная сеть путей сообщения, которая в IV тыс. до н.э. соединяла шумерские центры Северной Месопотамии с соседними территориями Северной Сирии, Восточной Анатолии, Западного Ирана. Из древнейшего очага цивилизации, которым была Передняя Азия, культурные достижения распространялись в Европу двумя потоками – через Балканы и Кавказ в степное Причерноморье. На рубеже IV и III тыс. до н.э., в раннебронзовом веке, здесь также использовались четырехколесные повозки. Дороги этого времени неизвестны, но можно предполагать, где пролегали пути распространения культурных достижений. Так, существует древняя «карта» - чеканное изображение на серебряном сосуде из Майкопского кургана, на которой достаточно узнаваемо обозначен путь с юга, из Восточной Анатолии или Северной Месопотамии, на Северный Кавказ. В статье дан краткий обзор транспортных средств от древности до Средневековья.
Research Interests:
Изучение древнего металла включает ряд проблем, таких как причины становления и ранние этапы его производства; пути поступления металлов в районы, бедные рудными месторождениями; роль металла как индикатора социальных процессов. Ближний... more
Изучение древнего металла включает ряд проблем, таких как
причины становления и ранние этапы его производства; пути поступления металлов в районы, бедные рудными месторождениями; роль металла как индикатора социальных процессов. Ближний Восток как область зарождения древнейших мировых цивилизаций играет ключевую роль в рассмотрении этих проблем, поскольку раннее знакомство с металлом и производство сплавов на медной основе было одним из условий и отличительных черт развития древних ближневосточных цивилизаций. Ценность металла в древности была чрезвычайно высока. Он был одним из наиболее ценных материалов, добывался со значительными затратами труда для внутреннего потребления и обмена, служил эквивалентом ценности и использовался для изготовления символически значимых предметов. В данной работе автор рассматривает в основном идеологические стороны использования металла, обращаясь к археологическому и культурному контексту металлических находок с тем, чтобы полнее понять связь между производственным и идеологическим аспектами жизни древних обществ на разных стадиях развития.
причины становления и ранние этапы его производства; пути поступления металлов в районы, бедные рудными месторождениями; роль металла как индикатора социальных процессов. Ближний Восток как область зарождения древнейших мировых цивилизаций играет ключевую роль в рассмотрении этих проблем, поскольку раннее знакомство с металлом и производство сплавов на медной основе было одним из условий и отличительных черт развития древних ближневосточных цивилизаций. Ценность металла в древности была чрезвычайно высока. Он был одним из наиболее ценных материалов, добывался со значительными затратами труда для внутреннего потребления и обмена, служил эквивалентом ценности и использовался для изготовления символически значимых предметов. В данной работе автор рассматривает в основном идеологические стороны использования металла, обращаясь к археологическому и культурному контексту металлических находок с тем, чтобы полнее понять связь между производственным и идеологическим аспектами жизни древних обществ на разных стадиях развития.
Research Interests:
The article considers a series of fi nds from several royal burials of the Bronze Age in Anatolia. The finds comprise spindles with spindle whorls, of bronze and precious metals. The author compares the objects in question and the... more
The article considers a series of fi nds from several royal burials of the Bronze Age in Anatolia. The finds comprise spindles with spindle whorls, of bronze and precious metals. The author compares the objects in question and the replicas of carpenters' tools, also made of precious metals, which are known in elite complexes of the Near East. The precious " implements " , unsuitable for practical usage, fi nd their place among the supreme symbols of royal power (regalia, weapons and vessels). The sacralization of labor through making symbolic (non-functional) tool replicas of precious metals was an important feature of early stratifi ed societies. Such objects had a strong semantic charge, visualizing the hierarchical structure of society. Their presence in burial complexes refl ects a major notion of the cult of the dead, that the deceased ancestor (king-priest or queen-priestess) provide for the well-being of the living descendants, the family and, broader, of the community, the state, and the world order in general. The spindle is also included in the list of objects that have symbolic meaning: as a tool it belonged to the sphere of everyday women's activities, yet it was also part of the sacred aspect of these activities, being connected with procreation and magic healing practices.
Research Interests:
L.I. Avilova. On circulation of metal in the epoch of the Chalcolithic – Bronze Age (ingots, blanks and weight systems of the Near East) Abstract. The article is focused on archaeological finds from the Near East dated to the Early Metal... more
L.I. Avilova. On circulation of metal in the epoch of the Chalcolithic – Bronze Age (ingots, blanks and weight systems of the Near East)
Abstract. The article is focused on archaeological finds from the Near East dated to the Early Metal period (V-IV – II mill. BC). Special attention is paid to the artefacts related to exchange – metal ingots/blanks and balance weights. Some aspects of metal circulation in the zone of early civilizations are discussed. The work aims at defining position the analyzed materials occupy in trade and exchange relations of IV – II mill. BC. The author applies comparative-typological method of investigation and draws corresponding data from archaeological publications. Morphological types of ingots/blanks from Anatolia, Syria-Mesopotamia, Palestine, Iran, Central Asia are singled out. Balance weights are compared to the weight characteristics of ingots and jewellery blanks. The author concludes that there existed intensive trade relations between Troy II–VI with Syria and Mesopotamia, stressing that the majority of Anatolian ingots/blanks correspond to weight standards of this zone of III – II mill. BC. Data from Late Bronze Age shipwrecks are presented. It is underlined that exchange systems using metals as equivalent of value must be regarded as indication of early civilizations of Near Eastern type. The data from burials of bronze-casters of Eastern Europe attest usage of Near Eastern weight standards. Relations between specialized population groups involved in metal production and exchange let infiltration of elements of Near Eastern civilization to pastoral tribes of a distant periphery.
Keywords: Bronze Age, metal, Near East, Iran, Central Asia, ingots, blanks, balance weights, exchange, weight standards, civilization, periphery.
Abstract. The article is focused on archaeological finds from the Near East dated to the Early Metal period (V-IV – II mill. BC). Special attention is paid to the artefacts related to exchange – metal ingots/blanks and balance weights. Some aspects of metal circulation in the zone of early civilizations are discussed. The work aims at defining position the analyzed materials occupy in trade and exchange relations of IV – II mill. BC. The author applies comparative-typological method of investigation and draws corresponding data from archaeological publications. Morphological types of ingots/blanks from Anatolia, Syria-Mesopotamia, Palestine, Iran, Central Asia are singled out. Balance weights are compared to the weight characteristics of ingots and jewellery blanks. The author concludes that there existed intensive trade relations between Troy II–VI with Syria and Mesopotamia, stressing that the majority of Anatolian ingots/blanks correspond to weight standards of this zone of III – II mill. BC. Data from Late Bronze Age shipwrecks are presented. It is underlined that exchange systems using metals as equivalent of value must be regarded as indication of early civilizations of Near Eastern type. The data from burials of bronze-casters of Eastern Europe attest usage of Near Eastern weight standards. Relations between specialized population groups involved in metal production and exchange let infiltration of elements of Near Eastern civilization to pastoral tribes of a distant periphery.
Keywords: Bronze Age, metal, Near East, Iran, Central Asia, ingots, blanks, balance weights, exchange, weight standards, civilization, periphery.